Learning

How can learning be defined?

The term learning—with the synonyms to learn, assimilate, acquire—refers to the psychological process of acquisition and modification of behavioral skills and abilities in living organisms, both animal and human, through experiences in the environment. Within this conceptual framework, it is stated that a subject has learned in a meaningful way when it is possible to observe behavioral manifestations demonstrating a change in the ability to operate in the environment.

A long-debated topic in pedagogyTo understand what pedagogy is, let’s provide a definition... More is the question of the autonomy of individual learning versus its dependence on instruction provided. In the first case, teaching is considered an external opportunity for self-directed learning; in the second case, learning is seen as determined by the interventions and rules of the instruction received. Recent research on the laws governing learning has led to significant changes in teaching methods, based on concepts such as stimulation, reinforcement, and feedback.

The theories that have brought about the greatest changes in perspectives on learning were those in the behaviorist domain, developed in the early twentieth century, which produced the S-R (Stimulus–Response) model to describe learning as the set of responses to stimuli to which the subject is exposed. The psychiatrist Viktor Frankl (1905–1997) later formulated the S-C-R (Stimulus–Comprehension–Response) model, adopted in Pedagogy for the Third Millennium.

What are the types of learning?

Psychopedagogical research generally distinguishes three types of learning:

• Latent learning
• Formal or informal learning
• Experiential learning

Latent learning

Edward Tolman (1886–1959) defined latent learning, which occurs in the absence of reinforcement or reward. Tolman’s theory represented an advancement over the concept of learning as mere response to a stimulus. He introduced the concept of goal or objective as a motivationMotivation: a scientific perspective Motivation is a fundame... More for learning, while acknowledging that learning can also occur without a specific purpose and always gradually.

Formal or informal learning

In this theory, learning is distinguished as formal when directed toward a specific objective, and informal when it results from interaction with the context.

• Formal learning occurs in structured and institutionalized environments, such as schools or workplaces.
• Informal learning typically occurs in everyday life activities and is further divided into experiential learning and incidental learning.

Experiential learning

Although considered a subcategory of informal learning, experiential learning was specifically developed by David Kolb (1939–) during the 1980s. Kolb identified four modes of acquisition or learning:

1. concrete experience
2. reflection
3. abstract conceptualization
4. active experimentation

Since different individuals may have preferences for different learning styles—not only compared to others, but also depending on the moment and context—an effective educational program should include all four modes. Therefore, for example, a comprehensive program should include: case study analysis for concrete experience; lectures for developing reflective skills; stimulation of abstract conceptualization through metacognition, which then translates into active experimentation with practical exercises.

According to Kolb’s theory, these four modes are sequential in a circular process within the learner.

The perspective of Pedagogy for the Third Millennium

Within PTM, learning involves mediation (see Glossary: Mediation) and is understood primarily as the result of interaction between the learner and the environment. Effective mediation by the educator creates an internal space of self-evaluation for the learner; external feedback is aimed at strengthening internal competence.

The learning process is understood as a value flow of abilities (know-how) and change, promoting different levels of human development. It is a spiral process that triggers the mind’s capacity to continuously change in a plastic manner, reorganizing its representations to allow humans to always be ready to respond to life’s demands.

For further reading:
P. Paoletti, Growing in Excellence, Armando Editore, 2008